Written by Ayat. Murtadha Mutahhari
In the previous discussion, "The Principle of Ijtihad in
Islam", two trends in Islamic thought were referred to. One of them related to
the subject of the justifiability or unjustifiability of the use of qiyas
and ijtihad bi al-ra'y, a practice that acquired prevalence among
different schools of fiqh. The other was regarding the controversy about Divine
justice and reason as the criterion of moral and legal judgements (al-husn
wal-qubh al-'aqliyyan) among the mutakallimun. These controversies actually
revolved around the central issue of the role or the "rights" of reason.
Some schools of fiqh which supported qiyas, especially the Hanafi
school, believed in the role of reason in ijtihad, which in their interpretation
took the form of qiyas and ijtihad bi al-ra'y. But the other
schools opposed to qiyas, especially the Zahiri school, did not approve
of any role for reason, neither in the form of qiyas nor in any other
form. Accordingly, the first group, while enumerating the sources of
legislation, maintained that there were four: the Qur'an, the Sunnah, ijma'
(consensus) and ijtihad (qiyas). But the second group did not go beyond
the Qur'an, the Sunnah and, at the most, ijma'. Among the mutakallimun,
the Mu'tazilah believed in the independent role of reason, and also in Divine
justice and the rational basis of moral and legal judgements. They believed that
the system of creation is established on the foundations of justice, and that
the present system is the best possible. They also explained away the problem of
evil in the world and believed that in the next world too punishment and reward
will be according to the unalterable criteria of justice. The knowledge of these
criteria is also within the province of reason. It is not possible that God
should will anything that is not according to these definite rational criteria.
With regard to legislation, also, they believed that the Divine commands have
been set forth according to the criteria of justice and with due attention to a
series of real benefits and harms (that lie in obedience or disobedience to the
laws). According to the Mu'tazilite doctrine, there is a purpose and aim hidden
in every Divine Act, whether it relates to creation or legislation.
But the Asha'irah did not believe in any of the above-mentioned doctrines.
They did not acknowledge Divine justice or the rational basis of moral and legal
judgements. They did not believe that the world is based on the principle of
justice and that the present system of creation is the best possible. Neither,
according to them, in the other world matters will be decided on the criteria of
justice, nor the system of Divine laws has been patterned to ensure a series of
benefits and to avoid harms. They did not believe in any aim and purpose for
Divine Acts either. According to their doctrine, the belief in the principle of
justice, the belief in a rational basis of moral and legal judgements, and the
belief that Divine Acts are subject to aims and purposes, usefulness and
harmfulness, contradict the principle of tawhid and the idea of absolute
freedom of God as a free actor. No law or principle can be set forth as a
criterion of His Will thus imposing limits upon Him. God's Will is neither
subordinate to any criteria nor is it subject to anv laws or principles; on the
contrary all laws and principles are subject to and proceed from His Will.
Judgements of reason cannot be relied upon to enable us to say definitely that
such and such a thing is in accordance with justice or not. For instance, it
cannot be said for certain that those people who obey God will be sent to heaven
and those who sin to hell. His Will and Acts cannot be restricted by any of such
rules. They interpret the following verse that says:
He will not be questioned as to that which He doth, but they will be
questioned. (21:23)
to mean that it is not right to ask 'why' and 'wherefore' about His Acts.
There is no criterion or standard applicable to Divine Acts so as to justify any
question about God's Action or forbearance. The Asha'irah have formally objected
to the statement that 'The Heavens stand on the foundations of justice', and
said that it is not so; they point out that matters like pain and disease, the
creation of Satan, social injustice and inequality, class distinctions,
domination of the corrupt over the virtuous in the world, and the like, are
things which are observable through reason, and, if the order of the universe
were based on justice, should not have existed. As for the religious laws and
precepts, they have formally declared that they are not based on wisdom and
prudence.
They say that the Shari'ah and its laws bring together disparities and
separate similarities. Many matters, in spite of their being unlike, have the
same judgement, and many other matters in spite of their being similar and
parallel have different judgements applicable to them. They have mentioned
various examples, to mention which is not possible here. Anyhow, according to
the Ash'arite doctrine, the process of creation is not subject to the principle
of justice; rather, justice is subordinated to creation. In the same way, the
laws of the Shari'ah are also not subject to any real underlying benefits
or harms; rather, benefit and harm, good and evil, are subservient to the
provisions of the Shari'ah. That is, if we are to speak about justice and
injustice, right and wrong, beneficial and harmful, what we should mean is that
whatever God does is just, good and beneficial, not that God does what is just,
good and beneficial.
This kind of thinking is not without similarity to the trend that existed
among the ancient Greek thinkers and the Sophists two thousand and five hundred
years ago about reality and the worth of human thought and ideas. They raised
the question whether reality is something which exists and our minds and their
ideas, in order to be valid, should correspond to reality, or whether it is not
so and reality is subject to our minds. For instance, during philosophical and
scientific contemplation, we may make a statement about something and say that
such and such is the case. Now does our statement correspond to some reality
independent of our minds, which would be true if it corresponded with that
reality? Or whether, on the contrary, truth and reality are subservient to our
minds, and whatever we perceive is the truth? And since it is possible that
different individuals should perceive something in diverse ways, truth is
relative to each one of them, being different from what it is for others?
Therefore, truth and reality are relative?
What a group of Muslim mutakallimun have said about religion in
relation to truth, goodness, justice and benefit was said before them by the
Greek Sophists about the mind in relation to reality and truth. The arguments
presented by the Sophists for proving their claim resemble those advanced by
this group of mutakallimun. Due to this similarity it would be right to
give them the name of 'Islamic sophists'.
This group of mutakallimun believed that they had discovered various
contradictions, equal treatment of disparities, and unequal treatment of
similarities in Islamic laws. They maintained that, on account of these
contradictions, it is not possible for any real benefits and harms to be the
criteria of religious laws. Therefore, it is the religious laws that are the
criteria of good and bad, benefit and harm.
The Sophists had also made an excuse of the contradictions and errors of
reason and perception, to hold that due to these contradictions it is not
possible for a reality which is transcendental to the mind, and which the mind
should follow, to exist. Reality, on the other hand, is a function of the mind.
The answer given by philosophers to Greek and non-Greek sophists is also similar
to the one given by the 'Adlites (those who believed in Divine justice, 'adl)
to that group of mutakallimun, but here we shall abstain from going into
further details.
The doctrine of taswib (lit. ratification) held by this group of
mutakallimun is totally similar to the theory of relativism. According to
the theory of relativity of truth, whatever one perceives is truth in relation
to him though in relation to others it may be error, not truth. Also according
to the theory of taswib, whatever one mujtahid may deduce is correct as
far as he himself is concerned, although it may not be so for others.
On the Crossroads:
There are many problems which are theoretically of profound significance, but
practically are not so important. There are also many problems which are not so
important regarding their theoretical value but from the practical point of view
they are of extraordinary significance. For instance, in theology we have the
problem of Divine Attributes, which is of great importance so far as theory is
concerned but is of little practical utility. For example, the study of and
inquiry into the question whether the Attributes of God are identical with His
Essence or not can be an important subject for theoretical study, but from the
practical point of view it is of little consequence which one of the two
doctrines you choose; it does not influence the life and behaviour of a Muslim
society. But the problem of jabr or tafwid (predestination or
freedom) is important from the theoretical point of view as much as it is
valuable for its practical aspect. Because the belief in the doctrines of
determinism and fatalism and the negation of every kind of human freedom ruin
the spirit of action and kill every kind of dynamism.
The problem of Divine justice and belief in rational criteria of moral and
legal judgements occupies the most important position in Islamic thought due to
its great influence on the intellectual and scientific history and behaviour of
Muslims. It is a fact that those who discussed and studied this issue soon
arrived at the crossroads, where they had either to accept religious laws as
based on a reality discoverable by reason, to try as far as possible to discover
that rational basis, to acknowledge a purpose and meaning of religion, to try to
discover those purposes and objectives, and to recognize reason as an "inner
proof and an "internal prophet" and to accept the definite judgements of reason
as enjoying the approval of the Divine Lawgiver; or to consider the aim and
purpose of the Shari'ah as entailing mere obligation and acts of absolute
servility devoid of any objective, and close all the doors on research and
intellectual inquiry.
How much it matters whether we conceive religion in terms of external forms
and shapes, viewing any change in external forms and appearances as a change of
essence and content, and, imagining some kind of inherent correspondence between
those forms and the very spirit of religion, recognize that soul in every form
and shape! And what a great difference it makes whether we consider the
universal laws of Islam, which cover a wide range of social and ethical problems
and concern all modes of human life, as based upon a series of realities
relating to spiritual health and well-being and innate human rights, or if we
deny the existence of those realities and believe, for instance, that vices like
jealousy, falsehood, and suspiciousness are bad because they have been forbidden
by the Lawgiver, and virtues like truthfulness, honesty, and benevolence are
good as they have been commanded by Him, as if there is no difference between
them in reality. Similarly, human rights also are to be acknowledged as such on
account of their being set forth by the Islamic lawgiver, or else had they been
determined in some other fashion that would have been equally right. Justice and
oppression are also defined in the light of these commandments, and if something
else had been enjoined, justice and injustice would have been defined in quite a
different way.
The Shi'ite Position:
The two above-mentioned intellectual trends were discussed from the point of
view of Sunni fiqh and kalam. Now it is necessary to study them
from the Shi'ite point of view also. The early Shi'ite logic concerning the
first of the two trends is extremely sensitive and interesting. As for the first
trend, that is, regarding the problem of justifiability or unjustifiability of qiyas, Shi'ah rejected qiyas on the basis of the express texts (nusus)
of their Imams. As mentioned in the former discussion, the Shi'ah disapproved of qiyas for two reasons:
Firstly, the use of qiyas was justified by others for the reason that
the problems to be solved are unlimited, whereas the dicta of the Shari'ah
are limited; therefore they are forced to resort to it. The Shi'ah do not accept
this reason because, they say, it is not necessary that every event and problem
should have a specified rule. General rules applicable to all situations are
given in the Shari'ah. The only thing needed is competent ijtihad,
inquiry and reflection to derive the particular from the general. Many ahadith
narrated from the Imams (A) and recorded in the collections of hadith, like al-Kafi,
etc., make the same point.
Secondly, qiyas is something which is based upon conjecture, surmise,
and superficial similarities, and is a kind of interference made by reason in
such matters which are not intelligible. At one time we may be concerned with
the course of action in a case when reason comprehends a fact with certainty and
clarity. At other times, in cases where the matter is not comprehensible to
reason, is it justifiable to follow conjecture and surmise? There is of course a
great difference between the two kinds of situations, but evidently if the
foundations of the religion are to be laid on ra'y, qiyas, surmise
and guess-work, it will lead to its destruction. This was the position held by
the Shi'ah with regard to the first trend.
As for the second, had the Shi'ah logic in rejecting qiyas been
similar to that of its other opponents who rejected it because they did not
believe in the rational basis of the religious laws and that they were based on
facts of nature, they too would have been forced to take a hostile stand against
the doctrines of Divine justice and the rational basis of moral and legal
judgements. However, as we have seen, the Shi'ah's reasons for rejecting
qiyas were different. Therefore, in spite of strongly disapproving qiyas,
they formally affirmed the share of reason in ijtihad. The Shi'ite fuqaha'
and the usuliyyun officially recognized reason as one of the four sources
of fiqh and the Shi'ite mutakallimun earnestly supported the doctrine of
justice, to the extent that it came to be said: "'Adl and tawhid
are 'Alawids."
It is here that the sensitiveness of the Shi'ite stand comes to light. On the
one hand they accepted the share of reason, and on the other they discarded
qiyas and ra'y as something based upon surmise and conjecture. In
fact, with utmost discernment they followed the real path of the Qur'an, which
eloquently approves of the use of reason but disapproves of surmise and
conjecture, and considers it invalid.
The Shi'ah occupied a very delicate position between the right and the left,
and a little deviation from the middle path was enough to expose them to the
danger of qiyas on the one side and on the other to that of servile
obscurantism and stagnant formalism.
However, during the later years, when the pointer of the scale tilted in
favour of the Asha'riah, and even the Hanafis, who stood at the remotest point
from the Ash'arite doctrine, became inclined towards them, how long could the
Shi'ah adhere to the middle course and be able to advance at the same time
without deviating either towards the extreme of qiyas or towards that of
a stagnant formalism? It is a matter that deserves to be studied in its
scientific and historical detail. Here we can briefly point out two things:
Firstly during the course of the intellectual history of Islam, all the sects
and groups influenced one another. The 'Adlites were influenced by the ideas of
non-'Adlites and the non-'Adlites by those of the 'Adlites. The influence of
ideas was reciprocal, and naturally the Shi'ah also couldn't remain aloof from
it.
Secondly, if we examine the extant works of Shi'ite scholars, we shall find
the anti-qiyas sensitivity of the early days to prevail right up to the
present. It is hard to find a single scholar among the Shi'ite fuqaha' to
exhibit any pro-qiyas tendencies, and if a very small number of scholars
had such tendencies, they belonged to the former times not to the later ages.
Therefore, there is complete certainty as to the absence of deviation towards
this extreme. However such a sensitivity regarding deviation towards the other
extreme is not so evident. Those who are in the know of it know well that the
terms 'Adlites and non-'Adlites have only ceremonial implications in the
vocabulary of the later scholars. Had the way paved by the 'Adlites in the past
been followed, it would have been the source of the origination of many of the
social sciences among Muslims - the sciences whose fountainhead was discovered
by the Europeans gradually one thousand years after the Muslims' discovery of
it.
The interest in truth and justice as independent realities, on the part of
the Europeans, gave rise to social, political and economic philosophies and
scientific and judicial disciplines on the one hand, and on the other served as
the source of awakening of nations and infused in them the feeling of life's
worthiness.
The Muslims could not continue their journey on the path that was discovered
by them and recognize the source and origin of human rights as being inherent in
nature. They failed to discover the primary bases of the Islamic legal system
and the social philosophy of Islam and to explain it to others and make use of
that general basis in the deduction of the laws of the Shari'ah.
In the opinion of the specialists, the Islamic legal system is one of the
most valuable legal systems of the world. In the East greater emphasis was laid
on ethics than on law, contrary to the West, where either the case was opposite,
or at least the same emphasis was laid on the two. The distinction belongs to
Islam of paying equal attention to both ethics and law. But the Muslims, due to
various reasons and factors, gave more importance to ethics and neglected the
Islamic legal system.
Possibly, the above discussion about the role of reason and the doctrine of
justice may give rise to the misconception that since Islamic laws are based
upon the interests of the individual and society it is good to indulge naively
in speculation and try to find some philosophy behind Islamic laws and rituals
and conjure up reasons for such acts, for instance, as tayammum (ritual
purification by sand when water cannot be obtained), ghusl (bathing),
madmadah (mouth washing) or istinshaq (drawing water into the nose
during the wudu') and to abstain from performing them as long as the underlying
rationale has not been found. I should clarify that my purpose is not this. What
I wish to say is that Islamic laws and precepts, whether they concern civil
rights, penal laws, social relations or some other aspect, are based on a series
of truths and facts. If we acquire the knowledge of those facts through a
scientific method appropriate to their study - whose principles have been mostly
discovered in our present-day world - we will be able to understand the meaning
of and rationale behind Islamic laws, which have reached us through revelation,
in a better way. For instance, through the Holy Qur'an as well as through the
teachings of the leaders of the Din, great aphorisms and ethical rules have
reached us. These sayings and injunctions have been always accessible to
everyone. But is it possible for everyone at present, or was it possible for
those in the past, to analyze them fully and to understand perfectly their aim
and spirit without being misled?
Unless one does have complete knowledge of the scientific fundamentals of
ethics and psychology, it is not possible for him to grasp the spirit of those
words of wisdom, which appear to be simple at first sight. The real value and
sublimity of those heavenly sayings become clearer if anyone studies the various
ethical systems of the world with their occasionally divergent aims and
principles.
To give another example, in the Holy Qur'an, as well as in the words of the
Prophet (S) and the Infallible Imams (A), we come across a great number of
discourses regarding tawhid and the Names and Attributes of God. Those
who have spent their lives studying tawhid and theology know that
sometimes they come across statements in the Qur'an and the Nahj al-balaghah
with an underlying ocean of meaning, whereas the same expressions and sentences
led the Ahl al-Hadith, the Hanbalis and the Zahiris to anthropomorphism and
heresy. What is the reason? This is because, since knowledge is the key to
revelation, whatever has been received through revelation, despite its
simplicity and universal utility, is an extract of reality which can be arrived
at only through science.
At the time of the last Hajj, while encouraging the people to memorize and
preserve whatever they heard from him, and to convey to the future generations,
the Prophet (S) said:
How often one conveys knowledge to another who is more learned than
himself.
The one who hears ahadith may possess more power of understanding and
analysis than the narrator himself. He may comprehend its spirit, purpose and
meaning in a better way on account of his superior knowledge. The religion can
be understood better in the light of knowledge. The secret of greatness and
miraculous character of the holy religion of Islam lies in the immense scope of
its teachings; and if any aspect of nature is illuminated by means of science,
it not only does not make obsolete the teachings of Islam but makes them
brighter and clearer.
In the realm of the spiritual, in relation to the mystic path, those who have
been successful in grasping the hidden meaning of the discourses relating to
this topic, have been those who have had familiarity with that realm. Ibn Abi
al-Hadid says that the gist of what all mystics have said can be seen in the few
sentences of the sermon of the Imam 'Ali (A) commencing with the words:
[...]
In short, knowledge is the key to religion. The scope of Islamic teachings
and laws covers all modes and aspects of human life, and, definitely, the more
we come to know about a sphere of human life and scientific principles related
to it, the greater the benefit we shall be able to draw from the bounty of
Divine revelation. If merely the knowledge of Arabic language were sufficient
for the understanding of the religion, a simple Arab would have been able to
draw as much amount of benefit from its teachings as a philosopher (hakim-e
ilahi).
The bases of human rights, also, are not an exception to this general rule.
Like ethics and theology, the rights are also based upon a series of natural
truths. The more we are acquainted with those fundamental truths and principles,
the better can we understand the aim and purpose of the religion. If we know
those principles and fundamentals, perhaps we shall recognize many of the verses
of the Qur'an and traditions as relating to ahkam which hitherto have not
been counted as having any legal significance. However, for the time being, it
is not possible to go into further details.
Thus, our aim is not that we should philosophize or speculate about the
rationale of Islamic laws and precepts. We aim to point out that since the
teachings of Islam cover all spheres of human life, and since, on the basis of
our belief in the doctrine of Divine justice, we know that these teachings are
not extravagant and baseless, but are based upon truth and natural realities and
are constituted on the basis of those realities, so if we come to know closely
those realities - which have been systematically studied in the course of
several centuries and their study has taken the form of scientific disciplines -
we shall be better able to comprehend the meanings and purposes of the language
of revelation (wahy), as we have seen in the study of ethics and
theology.
In Islam, there are laws associated with economy, society, government and
politics. Now all of them are considered to be subject to a series of
unalterable and fixed laws. Therefore, how can anyone without the knowledge of
those laws claim to have comprehended perfectly the viewpoint and purpose of
Islam regarding matters relating to them and present them before the world as
the most sublime of social teachings? If an ordinary person without knowing
anything about hikmat-e ilahi can comprehend the verses and traditions
related to tawhid and other topics of theology as well as a philosopher
who has worked diligently and understands well the basics of philosophy, then
any person ignorant of the sciences can also comprehend and understand the
viewpoint of Islam concerning various social problems to the extent of a social
scientist.
Islam, according to the express text of the Qur'an, is the religion of
nature. On the other hand we observe that a group of scientists and scholars
have claimed that some of the human rights are natural and inborn, hence
permanent and fixed, general and universal, and are prior to all other positive
rights. Is it not necessary to investigate this problem, to see whether this is
true? If it is, it is evident that Islam acknowledges them formally.
Is it true that things like the freedom of the individual, equality, the
right to private property and ownership, the freedom of belief, the freedom of
expression and the like are rooted in the human nature and are laws prescribed
by nature itself, and that their acknowledgement constitutes the basic condition
for the development of all human societies and wholesome human relations?
Do human rights precede social existence? Does the individual possess them
prior to his social existence, and does social existence mean that every
individual participates in society with the capital of his prior and essential
rights, thus establishing a kind of association with the help of other
individuals? Or the rights of an individual in society are posterior to society
and that social existence is the source and origin of the individual's rights?
Or does the individual in himself have no rights whatsoever; whatever he has are
duties and responsibilities alone, and rights belong to society, as some have
said?
What is the basis for determining rights? Is it the interests of the
individual or those of society? To what extent is it necessary to protect the
rights of the individual? Is the limit for the protection of the rights of the
individual the point where such protection interferes with the right of other
individuals, or occasionally this limit is set when the individual's rights
conflict with the interests of society? These, and hundreds of such questions,
have to be answered, and incidentally we have received guidelines and teachings
in Islam regarding all of them. If those guidelines were compiled and given a
scientific form, it would elucidate the great value of Islamic teachings and
open many of the present dead-ends.
Therefore, by emphasis on the share of reason we neither mean to support the
practice of qiyas and ra'y, which was innovated in the olden days,
nor the practice of speculation, which has become customary in our age. The aim
is to stress the scientific study of problems which are covered in the great
scope of the teachings of Islam, whose resourcefulness and problem-solving
potential has been recurringly proved to us in the course of the last fourteen
centuries. This is the only lasting miraculous aspect of this monotheistic
faith.
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